Feminism A Feminist Discourse - 1454 Words

Although Western feminism started in the 1900s, yet, it didn’t reach the Islamic world until most recently, a couple of hundred years later than the West. Despite the fact that both of the feminism movements come from totally different back grounds, and they are affected by different history and culture, still, both of them aimed for women’s best interests. Muslim women were profoundly feeling aggrieved by the discrimination they have against them. They stereotypical reputation about them in the West, and their presentation in the Western media didn’t help either. They started and supported a new fight to regain themselves the equal status they were granted by Islam centuries ago. Muslim women didn’t like to be looked at as being backward and oppressed by men in a male-dominant world. According to the feminist historian Margot Badran, â€Å"Islamic feminism is a feminist discourse and practice articulated within an Islamic paradigm. Islamic feminism, whic h derives its understanding and mandate from the Qur an, seeks rights and justice for women, and for men, in the totality of their existence.† (Badran, 2001) To understand how Islamic feminism is different than the Western feminism, Hosseini suggested that we can find the answers by: â€Å"examining the dynamics of Islamic feminism and its potential in the Muslim world. It is diï ¬Æ'cult and perhaps futile to put the emerging feminist voices in Islam into neat categories and to try to generate a deï ¬ nition that reï ¬â€šects the diversity ofShow MoreRelatedUnder Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses1669 Words   |  7 PagesIn her essay, â€Å"Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses,† Chandra Talpade Mohanty explores the simplified construction of the â€Å"third-world woman† in hegemonic feminist discourses. In contrast, in her essay â€Å"US Third-World Feminism: The Theory and Method of Oppositional Consciousness in the Postmodern World,† Chela Sandoval specifically analyzes â€Å"US third-world feminism† and how it is the model for not only oppositional political activity, but also consciousness in the UnitedRead MoreFeminism : Waves Of Debates Within Feminism Essay1658 Words   |  7 PagesGender 208 Assignment 1: Waves of Debates within Feminism Feminism, in simple terms, refers to a collective desire to end the oppression of women. Because oppression takes various forms and affects those who are victim to it in a number of different, yet often connected ways; feminism should accordingly be regarded as a multifaceted set of movements working towards multiple aims and ends. Which is to say that feminism is less a single movement concerned with the oppression of women, and more aRead MoreThe Debate Of Feminists And Cultural Relativists1712 Words   |  7 Pagesyears, critique of human rights discourse has evolved into discrete areas, which include feminism and cultural relativism. Feminists and cultural relativists often take opposing positions, with cultural relativist views seen as dominant over feminist discourse (Byrnes 1992). Not surprisingly, this creates tension between the two and limited their ability to collaborate and create more inclusive human rights discourses. This essay will outline the position of feminists and cultural relativists andRead MoreEvaluation of the Usefulness of Selected Examples of Foucaults Theory951 Words   |  4 Pagesshall evaluate the usefulness of selected examples of Foucault’s theories from a feminist perspective. 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Eminent Domain Use and Abuse Essay Example

Essays on Eminent Domain Use and Abuse Essay The paper "Eminent Domain Use and Abusee" is an outstanding example of an essay on law. Governments are empowered by the law to assume control of the private property for public use, thus constituting the eminent domain. However, in proclaiming eminent domain there are procedures that must be followed for a smooth proclaim (Levy, 2013). Firstly the government must declare a public need by identifying a scarcity in providing and accessing certain public services. Secondly, the government must prove that the intended public utility is of much value that the private utility. Thirdly, the government makes an offer to the owner for compensation. Finally, the government attempts to negotiate a fair value with the owner to purchase the property (Merriam and Ross, 2006). In case the owner does not wish to sell on eminent domain, the government will file a court action in order to exercise eminent domain. The court will schedule a hearing in which the government must demonstrate that it tried to acquire the property in good faith and for public use but no agreement was reached. If the petition favors the government, the process of establishing a fair market value for the property takes place and the required payments are made. Either party may appeal the decision in case the owner of the property is not satisfied with the outcome or the government fails in its petition (Levy, 2013).Government zoning, unlike eminent domain the government does not need to compensate the affected property owners. This is because zoning only entails restricting a certain area to a specific nature of utility. In addition, assuming control of a property through police power the property owner is also not compensated (Merriam and Ross, 2006).In conclusion, two good examples of cases that demonstrate eminent domain are the Harvey Cedar v. Karan case where Harvey acquired a third of Karan’s property and constructed a 22-foot high dune and offered $300.00 compensation. The second case is Kelo v. The city of New London where the court agreed with the Connecticut Municipality to take the privately owned real property of Kelo and other families for a comprehensive development plan.

Feminism in India Free Essays

Feminism in India  is a set of movements aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and equal opportunities for Indian women. It is the pursuit of  women’s rights  within the society of  India. Like their feminist counterparts all over the world,  feminists  in India seek gender equality: the right to work for equal wages, the right to equal access to health and education, and equal political rights. We will write a custom essay sample on Feminism in India or any similar topic only for you Order Now [1]  Indian feminists also have fought against culture-specific issues within India’s  patriarchal  society, such as  inheritance laws  and the practice of widow immolation known as  Sati. The history of feminism in India can be divided into three phases: the first phase, beginning in the mid-nineteenth century, initiated when male European colonists began to speak out against the social evils of Sati;[2]  the second phase, from 1915 to Indian independence, when Gandhi incorporated women’s movements into the  Quit India movement  and independent women’s organizations began to emerge;[3]  and finally, the third phase, post-independence, which has focused on fair treatment of women in the work force and right to political parity. 3] Despite the progress made by Indian feminist movements, women living in modern India still face many issues of discrimination. India’s patriarchal culture has made the process of gaining land-ownership rights and access to education challenging. [4]  In the past two decades, there has also emerged a disturbing trend of  sex-selective abortion. [5]  To Indian feminists, these are seen as injustices worth stru ggling against. [6] As in the  West, there has been some criticism of feminist movements in India. They have especially been criticized for focusing too much on women already privileged, and neglecting the needs and representation of poorer or lower  caste  women. This has led to the creation of caste-specific feminist organizations and movements. [7] Contents  Ã‚  [hide]   * 1  Defining feminism in the Indian context * 2  History * 2. 1  First phase: 1850–1915 * 2. 2  Second Phase: 1915–1947 * 2. 3  Feminism: Post-1947 * 3  Issues * 3. 1  Birth ratio * 3. 2  Marriage * 4  Theology * 4. 1  Hindu feminism * 4.   Islamic feminism * 5  Impact * 5. 1  Employment * 5. 2  Globalization * 5. 3  Education * 5. 4  Modernization * 6  Notable Indian feminists * 7  See also * 8  References * 9  Further reading * 10  External links| ————————————————- [edit]Defining feminism in the Indian context Tribal widow and single w omen protesting in  Jawhar,  Maharashtra Women’s role in Pre-colonial social structures reveals that feminism was theorized differently in India than in the West. 8]  In India, women’s issues first began to be addressed when the state commissioned a report on the status of women to a group of feminist researchers and activists. The report recognized the fact that in India, women were oppressed under a system of structural hierarchies and injustices. During this period, Indian feminists were influenced by the Western debates being conducted about violence against women. However, due to the difference in the historical and social culture of India, the debate in favor of Indian women had to be conducted creatively and certain Western ideas had to be rejected. 9]  Women’s issues began to gain an international prominence when the decade of 1975-1985 was declared the  United Nations Decade for Women. [2] Historical circumstances and values in India have caus ed feminists to develop a  feminism  that differs from Western feminism. For example, the idea of women as â€Å"powerful† is accommodated into patriarchal culture through religion,[10]  which has retained visibility in all sections of society. This has provided women with traditional â€Å"cultural spaces. Furthermore, in the West the notion of â€Å"self† rests in competitive  individualism  where people are described as â€Å"born free yet everywhere in chains. † In India the individual is usually considered to be just one part of the larger social  collective. Survival of the individual is dependent upon  cooperation, and  self-denial  for the greater good is valued. [10] Indian women negotiate survival through an array of oppressive patriarchal family structures: age, ordinal status, relationship to men through family of origin, marriage and procreation as well as patriarchal attributes. Examples of patriarchal attributes include:  dowry, siring sons etc. ,  kinship,  caste, community, village, market and the  state. It should however be noted that several communities in India, such as the  Nairs  of Kerala,  Shettys  of Mangalore, certain  Maratha  clans, and  Bengali  families exhibit matriarchal tendencies. In these communities, the head of the family is the oldest woman rather than the oldest man. Sikh  culture is also regarded as relatively  gender-neutral. 10][11] The heterogeneity of the Indian experience reveals that there are multiple patriarchies, contributing to the existence of multiple feminisms. Hence, feminism in India is not a singular theoretical orientation; it has changed over time in relation to historical and cultural realities, levels of consciousness, perceptions and actions of individual women, and women as a group. The widely used definition is â€Å"An awareness of women’s oppression and exploitation in so ciety, at work and within the family, and conscious action by women and men to change this situation. [11]  Acknowledgingsexism  in daily life and attempting to challenge and eliminate it through  deconstructing  mutually exclusive notions of  femininity  and  masculinity  as  biologically determined  categories opens the way towards an equitable society for both men and women. [11] The male and female dichotomy of polar opposites with the former oppressing the latter at all times is refuted in the Indian context because it was men who initiated  social reform movementsagainst various  social evils. Patriarchy is just one of the hierarchies. Relational hierarchies between women within the same family are more adverse. Here women are pitted against one another. Not all women are powerless at all times. [12] There have been intense debates within the Indian women’s movements about the relationship between Western and Indian feminisms. Many Indian feminists simultaneously claim a specific â€Å"Indian† sensitivity as well as an international feminist solidarity with groups and individuals worldwide. [9][13]  The rise of liberal feminism in the West in the 1970s focused deeply on demands for equal opportunities in education and employment, as well as ending violence against women. To a large extent, the emerging feminist movement in India was influenced by Western ideals. These called for education and equal rights, but also adapted their appeals to local issues and concerns, such as dowry-related violence against women,  Sati, sex selective abortion and custodial rape. Some Indian feminists have suggested that these issues are not specifically â€Å"Indian† in nature but rather a reflection of a wider trend of patriarchal oppression of women. [9] ————————————————- [edit]History Kamini Roy  (poet and suffragette) became the first woman Honors Graduate in India in 1886. Unlike the Western feminist movement, India’s movement was initiated by men, and later joined by women. The efforts of these men included abolishing sati, which was a widow’s death by burning on her husband’s funeral pyre,[2][14]  the custom of child marriage, abolishing the disfiguring of widows, banning the marriage of upper caste  Hindu  widows, promoting women’s education, obtaining legal rights for women to own property, and requiring the law to acknowledge women’s status by granting them basic rights in matters such as adoption. 15] The 19th century was the period that saw a majority of women’s issues come under the spotlight and reforms began to be made. Much of the early reforms for Indian women were conducted by men. However, by the late 19th century they were joined in their efforts by their wives, sisters, daughters, protegees and other individuals directly affected by campaigns such as those carried out for women’s ed ucation. By the late 20th century, women gained greater autonomy through the formation of independent women’s own organizations. By the late thirties and forties a new narrative began to be constructed regarding â€Å"women’s activism†. This was newly researched and expanded with the vision to create ‘logical’ and organic links between feminism and Marxism, as well as with anti-communalism and anti-casteism, etc. The Constitution of India did guarantee ‘equality between the sexes,’ which created a relative lull in women’s movements until the 1970s. [3] During the formative years of women’s rights movements, the difference between the sexes was more or less taken for granted in that their roles, functions, aims and desires were different. As a result, they were not only to be reared differently but treated differently also. Over the course of time, this difference itself became a major reason for initiating women’s movements. Early 19th century reformers argued that the difference between men and women was no reason for the subjection of women in society. However, later reformers were of the opinion that indeed it was this particular difference that subjugated women to their roles in society, for example, as mothers. Therefore, there was a need for the proper care of women’s rights. With the formation of women’s organizations and their own participation in campaigns, their roles as mothers was again stressed but in a different light: this time the argument was for women’s rights to speech, education and emancipation. However, the image of women with the mother as a symbol underwent changes over time – from an emphasis on family to the creation of an archetypal mother figure, evoking deep, often  atavistic  images. [3] [edit]First phase: 1850–1915 The colonial venture into  modernity  brought concepts of  democracy,  equality  and individual  rights. The rise of the concept of  nationalism  and introspection of discriminatory practices brought about social reform movements related to caste and gender relations. This first phase of feminism in India was initiated by men to uproot the  social evils  of  sati  (widow immolation),[16]  to allow widow remarriage, to forbid child marriage, and to reduce illiteracy, as well as to regulate the age of consent and to ensure property rights through legal intervention. In addition to this, some upper caste Hindu women rejected constraints they faced under Brahminical traditions. 3]  However, efforts for improving the status of women in Indian society were somewhat thwarted by the late nineteenth century, as nationalist movements emerged in India. These movements resisted ‘colonial interventions in gender relations’ particularly in the areas of family relations. In the mid to late nineteenth century, there was a national form of resistance to any colonial efforts made to ‘modernize’ the Hindu family. This included the Age of Consent controversy that erupted after the government tried to raise the age of marriage for women. 2][17] [edit]Second Phase: 1915–1947 Women’s procession during Quit India Movement in 1942 During this period the struggle against colonial rule intensified. Nationalism became the pre-eminent cause. Claiming Indian superiority became the tool of cultural revivalism resulting in an essentializing model of Indian womanhood similar to that of  Victorian  womanhood: special yet separated from public space. Gandhi  legitimized and expanded Indian women’s public activities by initiating them into the non-violent  civil disobedience  movement against theBritish Raj. He exalted their feminine roles of caring, self-abnegation, sacrifice and tolerance; and carved a niche for those in the public arena. Women-only organizations like  All India Women’s Conference  (AIWC) and the  National Federation of Indian Women  (NFIW) emerged. Women were grappling with issues relating to the scope of women’s political participation,  women’s franchise, communal awards, and leadership roles in  political parties. [3] The 1920s was a new era for Indian women and is defined as ‘feminism’ that was responsible for the creation of localized women’s associations. These associations emphasized women’s education issues, developed livelihood strategies for working class women, and also organized national level women’s associations such as the All India Women’s Conference. AIWC was closely affiliated with the Indian National Congress. Under the leadership of  Mahatma Gandhi, it worked within the nationalist and anti-colonialist freedom movements. This made the mass mobilization of women an integral part of Indian nationalism. Women therefore were a very important part of various nationalist and anti-colonial efforts, including the civil disobedience movements in the 1970s. 3] After independence, the All India Women’s Conference continued to operate and in 1954 the Indian Communist Party formed its own women’s wing known as the National Federation of Indian Women. However, feminist agendas and movements became less active right after India’s 1947 independence, as the nationalist agendas on nation buildin g took precedence over feminist issues. [18] Women’s participation in the struggle for freedom developed their critical consciousness about their role and rights in  independent India. This resulted in the introduction of the franchise and civic rights of women in the Indian constitution. There was provision for women’s upliftment through  affirmative action, maternal health and child care provision (creches), equal pay for equal work etc. The state adopted a patronizing role towards women. For example, India’s constitution states that women are a â€Å"weaker section† of the population, and therefore need assistance to function as equals. [15]  Thus women in India did not have to struggle for basic rights as did women in the West. The utopia ended soon when the social and cultural ideologies and structures failed to honor the newly acquired concepts of fundamental rights and democracy. 3] [edit]Feminism: Post-1947 Post independence feminists began to redefine the extent to which women were allowed to engage in the workforce. Prior to independence, most feminists accepted the sexual divide within the labor force. However, feminists in the 1970s challenged the inequalities that had been established and fought to reverse them. These inequalities included unequal wages for women, relegation of women to ‘unskilled’ spheres of work, and restricting women as a reserve army for labor. In other words, the feminists’ aim was to abolish the free service of women who were essentially being used as cheap capital. [3]  Feminist class-consciousness also came into focus in the 1970s, with feminists recognizing the inequalities not just between men and women but also within power structures such as caste, tribe, language, religion, region, class etc. This also posed as a challenge for feminists while shaping their overreaching campaigns as there had to be a focus within efforts to ensure that fulfilling the demands of one group would not create further inequalities for another. Now, in the early twenty-first century, the focus of the Indian feminist movement has gone beyond treating women as useful members of society and a right to parity, but also having the power to decide the course of their personal lives and the right of self-determination. [3] ————————————————- [edit]Issues Despite â€Å"on-paper† advancements, many problems still remain which inhibit women from fully taking advantage of new rights and opportunities in India. There are many traditions and customs that have been an important part of Indian culture for hundreds of years. Religious laws and expectations, or â€Å"personal laws† enumerated by each specific religion, often conflict with the Indian Constitution, eliminating rights and powers women should legally have. Despite these crossovers in legality, the Indian government does not interfere with religion and the personal laws they hold. [19]  Religions, like Hinduism, call for women to be faithful servants to God and their husbands. They have a term called  pativrata  that describes a wife who has accepted service and devotion to her husband and her family as her ultimate religion and duty. Indian society is largely composed of hierarchical systems within families and communities. These  hierarchies  can be broken down into age, sex, ordinal position, kinship relationships (within families), and caste, lineage, wealth, occupations, and relationship to ruling power (within the community). When hierarchies emerge within the family based on social convention and economic need, girls in poorer families suffer twice the impact of vulnerability and stability. From birth, girls are automatically entitled to less; from playtime, to food, to education, girls can expect to always be entitled to less than their brothers. Girls also have less access to their family’s income and assets, which is exacerbated among poor, rural Indian families. From the start, it is understood that females will be burdened with strenuous work and exhausting responsibilities for the rest of their lives, always with little to no compensation or recognition. [20] India is also a  patriarchal  society, which, by definition, describes cultures in which males as fathers or husbands are assumed to be in charge and the official heads of households. A  patrilinealsystem governs the society, where descent and inheritance are traced through the male line and men are generally in control of the distribution of family resources. [12] These traditions and ways of Indian life have been in effect for so long that this type of lifestyle is what women have become accustomed to and expect. Indian women often do not take full advantage of their constitutional rights because they are not properly aware or informed of them. Women also tend to have poor utilization of voting rights because they possess low levels of political awareness and sense of political efficacy. Women are not often encouraged to become informed about issues. Due to this, political parties do not invest much time in female candidates because there is a perception that they are a â€Å"wasted investment. â€Å"[15] The female-to-male ratio in India is 933 to 1000, showing that there are numerically fewer women in the country than men. This is due to several factors, including  infanticides, most commonly among female infants, and the poor care of female infants and childbearing women. Although outlawed, infanticides are still highly popular in rural India, and are continuing to become even more prominent. This is due to the fact, most especially in rural areas, that families cannot afford female children because of the  dowry  they must pay when their daughter gets married. Like infanticide, the payment of dowry is also  illegal, but is still a frequent and prevalent occurrence in rural India. [21]  Women are considered to be â€Å"worthless† by their husbands if they are not â€Å"able† to produce a male child, and can often face much abuse if this is the case. [22] [edit]Birth ratio Between the years of 1991 to 2001, the female-male ratio of the population of India fell from 94. 5 girls per 100 boys to 92. girls per 100 boys. [5]  Some parts of the country, such as  Kerala, did not experience such a decline, but in the richer Indian states of  Punjab,  Haryana,  Gujarat, and  Maharashtra, the female-male ratio fell very sharply (the female-male ratios in these states were between 79. 3 and 87. 8). [5]  This is evidence of natality inequality, and an indication that  sex-selective abortion  has become more pervasive. The Indian parliament has banned the use of sex determination techniques for fetuses due to this, but enforcement of this law has been largely ignored. [23] [edit]Marriage Most of the average Indian woman’s life is spent in marriage; many women are still married before the legal age of 18, and the incidence of non-marriage is low in India. Childbearing and raising children are the priorities of early adulthood for Indian women. Thus, if they enter the workforce at all, it is far later than Indian men. Urban Indian men reach the peak of their labor force participation between the ages of 25 and 29, while urban Indian women do so between the ages of 40 and 44. [4]  Because of this, women have less time for the acquisition of skills and fewer opportunities for job improvements. There is a poor representation of women in the Indian workforce. Females have a ten percent higher drop-out rate than males from middle and primary schools, as well as lower levels of literacy than men. Since unemployment is also high in India, it is easy for employers to manipulate the law, especially when it comes to women, because it is part of Indian culture for women not to argue with men. Additionally, labor unions are insensitive to women’s needs. Women also have to settle for jobs that comply with their obligations as wives, mothers, and homemakers. [4][21] ————————————————- edit]Theology [edit]Hindu feminism In the  Hindu  religion, there has been partial success in terms of gender equality reform laws and family law. While this is a major advancement relative to other religions in India, it is still not a complete triumph in terms of feminism and reliev ing oppression. [19]  Gandhi  came up with the term  stree shakti  (women power) for the concept of womanhood. In the Hindu religion, Gods are not exclusively male. Hinduism sheds a positive light on femininity; females are considered to compliment and complete their male counterparts. It is important to note that the deities of both knowledge and wealth are female. [15] There has been some criticism from  Dalit  groups that Indian feminism tends to represent â€Å"upper caste† and upper class Hindu women, while ignoring and marginalizing the interests of Dalit women. Debates on caste and gender oppression have been furthered by  Other Backward Class  (OBC) members of different political parties, arguing in state assemblies that â€Å"lower caste† women’s interests are best represented by women from these castes. 7]  Working towards this end, women within Dalit castes have formed organizations such as the All India Dalit Women’s Forum and the National Federation of Dalit Women and Dalit Solidarity, which focus on the gendered implications of caste based violence and oppression, such as the ways in which Dalit women suffer from urban poverty and displacement. [7] [edit]Islamic feminism The Hindu and Muslim communities in India w ere treated differently by the government in that separate types of concessions were made for each community in order to accommodate their separate religious laws and regulations. The case of  Shah Bano  begun in 1985 was one such example of  Rajiv Gandhi  attempting to make â€Å"concessions† for the Muslim community to in turn secure support for the Congress. Shah Bano, a 73-year-old Muslim woman, was divorced by her husband after forty-three years of marriage. According to the Sharia or Muslim Law, her husband was not required to pay her alimony. Shah Bano challenged this decision in the Supreme Court, which ultimately ruled in her favor and ordered her husband to pay her a monthly maintenance allowance. This caused chaos amongst the Muslim clerics who denounced the judgement and suggested that their religion, Islam was under attack in the country. In a fear of losing overall Muslim support, Rajiv succumbed to the pressures of the Muslim community and his own party and backed the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Bill that overruled the Supreme Court’s decision. This caused an outcry from Hindu nationalists who found the appeasement of minorities by the Congress for political purposes wrong and opportunistic. 24] Feminism was challenged by various minority groups for not entirely addressing the needs of minority populations. It was suggested that ‘mainstream’ feminism was upper caste and Hindu in its orientation and did not address the concerns of minority women. This led to the formation of the Awaaz-e-Niswaan (The Voice of Women) in 1987 in Mumbai in largely Muslim part of the city. The Muslim community has been subjected to personal laws that often were considered harmful to the rights of Muslim women. [25] ————————————————- [edit]Impact Western-educated Indians introduced  equality  in the early nineteenth century. However, the term did not gain meaning or become an operational principle in Indian life until the country gained independence in 1947 and adopted a democratic government. [15]  The  Indian Constitution  then granted equality, freedom from discrimination based on gender or religion, and guaranteed religious freedoms. [19]  Also, seven  five-year plans  were developed to provide health, education, employment, and welfare to women. The sixth five-year plan even declared women â€Å"partners in development. [15] [edit]Employment In general in the uneducated and rural section of the Indian society, which forms a major percentage of the total population, women are seen as economic burdens. Their contributions to productivity are mostly invisible as their familial and domestic contributions are unfairly overlooked. Indian women were contributing nearly 36 percent of total employment in agricult ure and related activities, nearly 19 percent in the service sector, and nearly 12. 5 in the industry sector as of the year 2000. The unfortunate reality is that the high illiteracy rate among women confines them to lower paying, unskilled jobs with less job security than men. Even in agricultural jobs where the work of men and women are highly similar, women are still more likely to be paid less for the same amount and type of work as men. [26]  However in the urban section of Indian society, women are empowered with laws such as IPC 498a which are heavily biased against the men in the society. Educated women are sometimes accused of using such laws to unleash legal terrorism on husbands by disgruntled wives. 24] [edit]Globalization Feminists are also concerned about the impact of globalization on women in India. Some feminists argue that globalization has led to economic changes that have raised more social and economical challenges for women, particularly for working class and lower caste women. Multinational companies in India have been seen to exploit the labor of ‘young, underpaid and disadvantage d women’ in free trade zones and sweat shops, and use â€Å"Young lower middle class, educated women,† in call centers. These women have few effective labor rights, or rights to collective action. [27][28] In addition to this, multinational corporations are seen to advertise a homogenous image of ideal women across the country is argued to cause an increase in the commodification of women’s bodies. This is also manifested in the form of nationalist pride exhibited through Indian women winning international beauty pageants. According to some feminists, such developments have offered women greater sexual autonomy and more control over their bodies. However, many other feminists feel that such commodification of female bodies has only served the purpose of feeding to male fantasies. [27] [edit]Education Girls in Kalleda Rural School,  Andhra Pradesh. Some of the main reasons that girls are less likely to reach optimal levels of education include the fact that girls are needed to assist their mothers at home, have been raised to believe that a life of domestic work is their destined occupation, have illiterate mothers who cannot educate their children, have an economic dependency on men, and are sometimes subject to child-marriage. 26] In 1986, the  National Policy on Education  (NPE) was created in India, and the government launched the program called  Mahila Samakhya, whose focus was on the empowerment of women. The program’s goal is to create a learning environment for women to realize their potential, learn to demand information and find the knowledge to take charge of their own lives. In certain areas of India , progress is being made and an increase in the enrollment of girls in schools and as teachers has begun to increase. By 2001 literacy for women had exceeded 50% of the overall female population, though these statistics were still very low compared to world standards and even male literacy within India. [29]  Efforts are still being made to improve the level of education that females receive to match that of male students. [26] [edit]Modernization Modern influences are affecting the younger generations in parts of India, where girls are beginning to forgo the more traditional ways of Indian life and break gender stereotypes. In more flourishing parts of the country, the idea of â€Å"dating,† or more specifically  openly  dating, has come into play, and the terms â€Å"girlfriend† and â€Å"boyfriend† are being used. Some women have landed highly respectable careers, and can be seen across  Bollywood  billboards and advertisements. However, this is not the norm throughout the country; such modernizations and the women behind them face serious resistance from anti-liberalists. The country is still severely male-dominant and unwelcoming to such movements that go against sex and gender traditions in India. Hasselrlis, Kaj. â€Å"Making a Statement. †Ã‚  Herizons  23. 2 (2009): 33-35. How to cite Feminism in India, Essay examples

Marketing Strategies of Newman Apparels-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the Strategic Marketing of Newman Apparel situated in Wellington, New Zealand. Answer: Introduction Strategic marketing is used by the organization to make a plan for reaching the customers and to satisfy the needs of the customer while increasing efficiency and viability of the organization. Basically organization create strategic marketing plan in written which will direct the type of program of marketing is to be used for particular situation and implementation of the programs. Strategic marketing also help business in becoming innovative and to know how to cover the market (Freeman, 2010). Newman Apparel is a website of online shopping and established in Wellington, New Zealand and was founded in the year of 2016. The founder of Newman Apparel is Justin Newman. It is solely in the business of selling gym ware at the lowest price and provide best quality products (Newman Apparel. 2017). It offers free delivery of the cloths over New Zealand. It has its business only in New Zealand with single office. It faces huge competition from other shopping websites. Marketing Analysis A marketing analysis is a valuation that permits you to determine how appropriate a specific market is for the business. Marketing analysis is used to evaluate the present market or search new market (Pestle analysis. 2015). The factor of marketing analysis is SWOT analysis in which we identify businesses strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (Tech Target. 2017). SWOT Analysis of Newman Apparels Strength OF Newman Apparel Customer segment: People of New Zealand prefer going gym and want themselves to be fit. So, it is a market for the companies providing products related to fitness. Therefore, Newman Apparels have three segments such as people going to the gym regularly, first-timers and people who are health-conscious. The given three segments involve the use of same type of product that is why it is a strength for Newman Apparels and can concentrate on these segment. Prices of the product- Newman Apparels charge less prices for their offerings with qualitative products as compared to its competitors. Even Newman Apparels do not charge any amount for delivery of the products over New Zealand. Newman Apparels is situated in Wellington of New Zealand, therefore it is very convenient for the people live near Wellington to access their services. Weaknesses of Newman Apparels Customer base- Customer base of the Newman Apparels is very less as many customers buy the products only one time and do not come back. To maintain the good relations with the customers is very important for the business to survive. In the case of Newman Apparel it seems to be missing as customer loyalty is also missing and it is a weakness of Newman Apparel. Opportunities of Newman Apparels Increase market share- Newman Apparel deliver their product very easily only in and around Wellington, they should make their process smooth for delivering their product in other places. In addition to this they should start delivering their product internationally to increase their market share. Threats of Newman Apparels Resources- Newman Apparels should hire more staff members as less members cannot handle the work future because of their expansion. They should also implement better technology and should order new computers which will increase the speed of processing. Implication of Blue ocean strategy BOS- Blue ocean strategy is a set of strategic methodologies, tools and principles that provide assistance to the business in generating an increase in value and profit by observing outside the boundaries of outdated competitive strategy. It provide a thought to them who work in the planning of marketing and strategies to look outside the existing demand, recreate the marketplace and make relevant competition (Kim Mauborgne, 2014). Value Innovation, strategy canvas and ERRC grid are known as the key principle and tools of Blue Ocean strategy. Source [https://deams.units.it/sites/deams.units.it/files/VALUE%20INNOVATION.pdf] Value Innovation- Value innovation is the keystone of Blue Ocean strategy. Its main focus is that business should give equal importance to innovation and value. If business will only focus on creating the value of product and services without innovation then the value may increase for the customers but it will not show anything different or will not have a successful position in the market. Innovation only is frequently advanced and technology determined. Generally it fails to encounter the value wants and needs of the customers for which they are ready to pay. It totally avoids them. Innovation for innovations sake. Therefore, it is very important to have an innovation that involve value for the success of the product or business (Lv, 2017) Strategic Canvas- A strategy canvas is both an action and investigative framework for constructing a convincing strategy of Blue Ocean. It captures the present position of the business in the market space. This helps to analyze the investing strategy of the competitors, factors to be considered in the product, service and delivery for the competition and what are the offerings for the customers in the existing market. The horizontal axis represents the series of aspects the business participates or invests in. The vertical axis represents the level of offers that buyer obtains through all these key challenging factors (Tracogna, 2017). The value curve then delivers a graphic illustration of a performance of company across business competition factors. Value Curve- It is a tool used to make a graphical illustration of the market place of the business covered by present assistances in the market. The tool is used to determine gainful and vacant places (Birajdar Mankar, 2017). Steps that are involved in this- Step 1: Define the key aspects of price and performance. Step 2. Plan existing offerings. Step 3. Make value-adding adjustments to match hidden demand to vacant places. ERRC Grid for Newman Apparel- Eliminate, Reduce, Raise, Create Eliminate Reduce Factors of Competitive market Local market strategy Raise Create Product line Advertisement Expand variety of product The ERRC grid is a tool that help new business or any company to recognize the new opportunities in the market, services or product or a model of business to distinguish it from the competition. It assists in classifying the elements on which a company work on to stand out in the market (Alamoudi Alandijany, 2017). Eliminate- The factors must be eliminated those are not adding value besides the company has worked on lot on it to compete (Kim, 2016). Newman Apparels is not so much famous in the market as it has started operating in 2016 year. Thus, it faces huge competition from the shopping websites that already exist in the market. Therefore, Newman Apparel should focus on eliminating those factors that arise in the competitive market. Reduce- Factors that involve huge cost for maintaining them and are just giving little profit to the business must be reduced (Gander, 2017). Local market strategies must be reduced by the Newman Apparel if it is not increasing their market and finally the business profit will not increase. Raise- The factors that can add value to the existing customers should be raised in the business (Egypt Innovate. 2015). Newman Apparel should not only focus on gym wears they can sell other type of wear or can add a footwear option. Create- New factors should be created that were not added before and can add value and can attract the customers (Ng, Lau Ismail, 2014). Newman Apparel should do attractive advertisement to attract customers and to make their business famous. Along with this they should expand their product line and can provide variety of products. Marketing and Company resources for the value innovation Company Resources- Financial resources and human resources are included in companys resources. For utilizing the opportunity of the business, it is very essential to manage the resources of the company (Chuang Lin, 2017). In the matter of Newman Apparels, business should manage the human and financial resources properly. They should focus on providing quality of gym product so that health conscious people can be attracted for this they need an idea that is innovative for improving the feature of their product. This can be achieved by properly managing the financial and human resources. Thus, strong human resource is needed for promoting the product through social media. Marketing Resources Resources of marketing are energy, expertise, money and time. These four resources are very important for business to bring the product into the market by using the opportunities (Sok, Miles, 2016). In the matter of Newman Apparels, to grasp the international market opportunities they need lot of money to invest. Thus, money is said to be the major element for the business to hire the expertise and workforce. Though, Newman Apparel is an online based shopping website therefore, they need expertise staff with technical and non-technical skills for marketing their product. For creating attractive advertisement and promoting the product to increase the number of customers business need talented marketing executives. Technical experts should be involved and operate the whole online marketing. Another important element of marketing is Time. For increasing the market share of the business in the international market Newman Apparel have to give more time to its business plan and its development. On the other side, business should give more time in the research of market for understanding the different market needs. If Newman Apparel want to expand their business in the international market they require an effective marketing plan, which will time more time. Energy means the ability of a business to convey their marketing operation. Positioning Strategy for Newman Apparel Newman Apparel should start delivering their products outside New Zealand so that other people can also know about their business and can get famous. Besides this, Newman Apparel have small office in Wellington in its Upper Hutt, they should focus on extending their business as well as their offices in other countries. Other than this, Newman Apparel faces huge competition from the shopping websites already existing in the market with variety of products online. Thus, to surviving in the competitive market they should offer variety of products instead on selling only gym wear. Further, for the development of the business and to make business famous with increasing its profit they need to make attractive advertisements. Marketing Mix The marketing mix known as the set of tactics, strategies and actions used by a business for promoting its product in the market. The Marketing mix involve 4Ps i.e. Product, Price, Place and Promotion (The Economic Times. 2017). Product- Product is the item sold by the business (Patil Bach, 2017). Newman Apparel should provide good quality of wears they are selling and that should deliver minimum level of performance. If it will not be done then the other strong efforts will not make any sense. Price- Price is the amount which is decided for a product while placing it for sale in the market or website. It is depend on the production cost, ability of the customer to pay, demand and supply of the product. Newman Apparel provide their gym wear at low cost that makes their clothes affordable of all the customers with best quality. Place- Place means the point where business sell its products. The main aim of place strategy is to catch the attention of the customers and make easy for the customer to come and buy it (Fan, Lau Zhao, 2015). Newman Apparel sell their products online as it is online based shopping website. Thus, it makes easy for the customer to buy as in todays scenario most of the public is technology centric and feel comfortable in online shopping. Further, Newman Apparel should deliver their product outside the boundary of New Zealand. Promotion- Promotion involve all the activities that are important for placing the product in the market and known to the user (Huang Sarigll, (2014). Newman Apparel should promote their product with attractive advertisement to make their business famous and to increase their profit and customer base. Strategic Marketing implementation and control Implementation In the process of strategic marketing implementation phase business should concentrate and make sure that the use of all the business resources such as human, capital and marketing should be efficient. Assortment of the strategy has an important influence on the preceding working of the company, since its administrative structure need to be flexible to strategy. Effectiveness of the Strategic marketing is mostly depends on the executive leadership level of involvement in the marketing task implementation (West, Ford Ibrahim, 2015). Behavior, attitude and skills of the staff are the factors considered very important for the implementation of the strategic marketing. Factors on which quality of management depends are- Involvement of the top management in the process of planning. It is important for the business for smooth functioning of the business and for its success. It is very important to have a good coordination between the different units of the business or organization. The flow of communication must be smooth and information should transfer vertical and horizontal way. The selection of the personnel in the business should be done properly as they are the resource of the business. Besides this, training and evaluation process of the staff should be effective. Resources of the organization such as methods of management, building of the business, IT system must be managed properly. The incentive plans of the business must be attractive that can motivate the employees of the business to work hard and give their best in achieving the objectives of the business. The relation between the different units of the business should be effective which that are part of the organizational structure. Control Control is another important aspect of the process of Strategic Marketing. The important points of the control phase are- Indicators value- Value indicators must be set properly as they observe and measure the performance of the business and even control its performance. For example- Stock rotation, market share and sales volume. Tolerance range- The control phase also depends on defining the tolerance ranges from scheduled standards. Measurement- Value indicators such as stock rotation, market share and sales volume must be measured. Comparison- Comparison of scheduled standards, to define deviations and provide clarification of their roots. Eliminate the deviations- Preparation of applications to remove the identified deviations or modification of values of indicators. Conclusion This report is based on the strategic marketing plan of Newman Apparels of New Zealand. It is an online based shopping website that sells only gym wears. Strategic marketing is created for reaching the customers and to increase the market share of the business. Marketing analysis has been done to identify the Strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threat of the Newman Apparel. Further, Blue Ocean Strategy and its tools such as value innovation, strategic canvas and ERRC grid is explained in this report as it provide assistance to business and will help Newman Apparel to increase their business. Marketing and company resources will help Newman Apparel for its success. In addition to this, marketing mix shows that Newman Apparel should focus on promoting their products and increasing the market share by delivering their product outside New Zealand. Therefore, Implementation and control of strategic marketing should involve the participation of all the unit of the business as it will l ead to the development of the Newman Apparel business. References Alamoudi, R. H., Alandijany, B. A. (2017). Developing a Framework for Entrepreneurs to Transform Their Ideas into Businesses: A Case Study in the Food Sector. American Journal of Industrial and Business Management, 7(04), 444. Birajdar, G. K., Mankar, V. H. (2017). Blind image forensics using reciprocal singular value curve based local statistical features. Multimedia Tools and Applications, 1-23. Chuang, S. H., Lin, H. N. (2017). Performance implications of information-value offering in e-service systems: Examining the resource-based perspective and innovation strategy. The Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 26(1), 22-38. Egypt Innovate. (2015). ERRC GRID - BLUE OCEAN STRATEGY. Retrieved from: https://egyptinnovate.com/en/%D8%A3%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1/errc-grid-blue-ocean-strategy Fan, S., Lau, R. Y., Zhao, J. L. (2015). Demystifying big data analytics for business intelligence through the lens of marketing mix. Big Data Research, 2(1), 28-32. Freeman, R. E. (2010). Strategic management: A stakeholder approach. Cambridge university press. Gander, J. (2017). Strategic analysis: a creative and cultural industries perspective. Taylor Francis. Huang, R., Sarigll, E. (2014). How brand awareness relates to market outcome, brand equity, and the marketing mix. In Fashion Branding and Consumer Behaviors, (pp. 113-132). Springer New York. Kim, M. S. (2016). A Techno-Economic Analysis with Blue Ocean Strategy for New Technology: Case of an RFID System. Journal of Emerging Issues in Economics, Finance and Banking, 5(2). 1912-1921. Kim, W. C., Mauborgne, R. A. (2014). Blue ocean strategy, expanded edition: How to create uncontested market space and make the competition irrelevant. Harvard business review Press. Lv, Y. (2017). The Business Model Study on Red Collar Group: Based on the Perspective of Blue Ocean Strategy. Chinese Studies, 6(02), 123. Newman Apparel. (2017). Shop our classic collection. Retrieved from: https://newmanapparel.net/ Ng, A. H. H., Lau, D. H. C., Ismail, W. K. W. (2014). Adoption of focus group and policy Delphi to blue ocean strategy: a proposed conceptual model. International Journal of Management and Enterprise Development, 13(2), 130-146. Patil, D. D., Bach, C. (2017). Marketing-Mix For Strategy Building. Marketing, 4(4). Pestle analysis. (2015). What is Marketing Analysis? Retrieved from: https://pestleanalysis.com/what-is-marketing-analysis/ Sok, P., O'Cass, A., Miles, M. P. (2016). The performance advantages for SMEs of product innovation and marketing resourcecapability complementarity in emerging economies. Journal of Small Business Management, 54(3), 805-826. Tech Target. (2017). SWOT analysis. Retrieved from: https://searchcio.techtarget.com/definition/SWOT-analysis-strengths-weaknesses-opportunities-and-threats-analysis The Economic Times. (2017). Definition of Marketing Mix. Retrieved from: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/definition/marketing-mix Tracogna, A. (2017). Value Innovation and Blue Oceans. Retrieved from: https://deams.units.it/sites/deams.units.it/files/VALUE%20INNOVATION.pdf West, D. C., Ford, J., Ibrahim, E. (2015). Strategic marketing: creating competitive advantage. Oxford University Press, USA.

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Western Imperialism in Japan and China essays

Western Imperialism in Japan and China essays During the 1850-1939, the western powers, particularly Britain, came over to Asia. The main reason they came to Asia was because of trade. The British wanted to trade with the Japanese, but mainly the Chinese, for goods such as silk and other things that you couldnt find in Europe. The only problem was that the Chinese didnt want anything to do with the Europeans. This is what made the Europeans start forcing the Chinese to trade with them. There were many reasons that the Chinese didnt want to trade with the Europeans. One reason was that the Chinese felt that there was nothing that the Europeans had that they wanted. They felt that their economy was fine without the presence of the Europeans, especially the British. The first stop on the way to China was Japan. The British and Matthew C. Perry with four ships into Edo Bay in 1853 to try and convince the Japanese to open up to the British (. When the Japanese saw the ships that Perry brought with them, they were stunned. When Perry got there he forced the treaty of Shimoda on the Japanese. Matthew said he would return a year later. Perry returned on his given date with 7 black ships to see if the Japanese had lightened up. Indeed they had because they were afraid of the ships and what the British could do with them. Perry made the Japanese accept a treaty that gave Europeans pretty much full rights in Japan. The treaty was called the Treaty of Kanagawa. This treaty gave all Europeans what was called extraterritoriality. This meant that even if a European killed a Japanese person, he could only be tried under the laws of his own country. Thus the criminal would be brought back to Europe to be tried. The reasons that they did this was because before the treaty was in place, Europeans that were washed up on Japanese soil because their ship had sunk, were jailed and even kill. Originally, the British wanted nothing to do with the Japanese. Japan wa...

Health Reforms in USA Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Health Reforms in USA - Term Paper Example According to the research findings, it can, therefore, be said that similarly as in the US, China has also seen many health reforms in the last decade, but the grounds on the basis of which the reforms have been made in the two countries differ quite considerably. Whilst in China, securing people from financial shocks resulting from high medical costs was the reason; in America, the attention was focused on reducing expensive emergency care by increasing access to health insurance and thereby reducing the burden from providers’ shoulders. The healthcare system of US was declared as ‘broken’ in the 1990’s, and since then the health-related concerns have only risen. One essential healthcare system overhaul in the USA was the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA), signed by President Obama in 2010. Since it became law, US has observed great debate on the national level about the ‘Obamacare’ Act; a term coined by people against the pas sage of the Act who see the Act as bringing benefit not for the citizen but for Mr. Obama solitarily. Similarly, an appeal was filed in the world’s top court for the repealing of the law but the Court on ruled the Obamacare is upheld – the ruling to which Obama referred to as the victory for the people of America. Comparing the US healthcare structure with that of China, things are much different. Although major reforms have been made and efforts have been put in to ensure the delivery of better health services to the people of China, a vast proportion of the total population still lives far below national socioeconomic average. Of particular importance, among these reforms, is New Rural Co-operative Medical Care System (NRCMCS), a restructure overhaul for China’s healthcare arrangement initiated in 2005. The essential provisions of this system are that the burden of an average Chinese patient is not borne by the patient alone, rather it is divided among the Cen tral Government, Provincial Government and the patient himself, the ratio is 40%, 40%, and 20% respectively.

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Ancient greek art paper - Essay Example These figures are seen throughout the Aegean period. This is a clear indication that these figures were adored mainly among people of Crete and Greece (van, Schaik, 11). Interestingly, one of the well-known marble figures is mainly musicians; one who is a harp player, and another one who is a pipe holder. These are dated around 2500 BCE. These are considered the earliest extant musicians in the Aegean. Majority of the figures during this period were mostly women ranging from simple adjustment of stone to developed figures resembling human beings. Some of these figures had natural proportions while some were idealized (van, Schaik, 19). It is important to note that high number of these figures during Spedos type depicted uniformity and proportion, a clear indication that they were planned with a compass. Additionally, through scientific analysis it is evident that the surfaces of these figures were painted with mineral based pigments-azurite for blue ores or cinnabar for red. The figure in the Appendix shows a male seated on a high-backed chair playing a stringed instrument to assist him as he sings. Painted information that originally inflated the figure has currently been eroded into a plain white marble (van, Schaik, 22). Despite this, the information is still legible and engaging. What is interesting about this figure is its elegant wedge shape. The marble figure tilts back his head drawing his lips frontward. This enables one think or imagine words that he is likely to singing. Additionally, his ears are prominent. This enables him to hear his own music (van, Schaik, 26). The arm muscles and vigilantly articulated fingers suggest his capability as a musician; he releases his right thumb, maybe to sound a note on a string. The back of the musician’s head was painted maybe to show a close fitting cap. It is evident that he holds the front of the harp by use of his hands, and placing it on his leg and shoulder in

Investing in Gold and Silver Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Investing in Gold and Silver - Essay Example By depositing the gold and silver into the respective banks of nations, it was replaced with paper money based on the value of the gold and silver they deposited (Dunwiddle, 2008). The problem started to arise when the World War closed in and the countries required huge amounts of resources to fund the wars. Prior to the World War, the gold standard was in place in most of the countries. Gold Standard, as explained above is when people could convert their gold into paper money. Hence, the government is restricted in the amount of paper money it could print. The advantage of this gold standard upholds is that the inflation is kept under check, as the supply of money is limited (Haynes, 2005). To fund the war the United Kingdom and the United States both abandoned the Gold Standard, in 1920s and 1933 respectively. This was replaced by the Gold Exchange Standard, through which countries did no longer hold reserves in actual gold, but in dollars and pounds. Thus putting these currencies in a strong position in the world, while the other countries kept on piling up foreign currency thinking they were good as gold. In 1974 to further cut the ties between gold and currency, US government of Nixon abolished the link. Due to the need of yet more funds for the Vietnam War, the government abolished this link. The effects of this final blow, led to high inflation further helping the government and big businesses. Leslie Snyder in her book, â€Å"Why Gold? The One Sure Cure for Inflation and Economic Tyranny† named inflation as a vicious form of taxation on the common people, while the big corporations and government are the beneficiaries (Snyder, 1974). The importance and relevance of this historical background of Gold and Silver, is to understand how valuable gold and silver is even today. One thing to keep in mind is that even though the abolishment led to high inflation and budget deficits during the 1970s, the prices of gold and silver also increased with it. He nce the investment in silver and more importantly gold is always a safe bet. When inflation was at the highest in the United States during 1979 and 1980 the return on the gold was 130.4% on an average. It is a great hedge against high inflation; this holds true for the current market situation as well (BERU). Currently, the central banks are planning to announce unlimited liquidity to the financial sector. This would further fuel inflation and move it a step closer towards hyperinflation and top of the exhaustion of the savings and diminishing purchasing power, the metals such as Gold and Silver will emerge as winners. This is due to fact that the governments and central banks continue to print more and more money. According to William Bancroft, the gold is undervalued today in terms of the money being published. Considering this scenario the investors in the mining sector will be rewarded handsomely in the future. The opposite side of inflation is deflation. According to Bancroft, not only will a high inflation have a positive impact on gold, but a deflation will result in a desirable outcome. Due to the economics of deflation, it would put high pressures on the banks. Resulting in bank failures, depositors will find other means to safeguard their money. As history has shown, there is no safer investment than gold and silver. Due to the nature and high performance of these metals, gold and silver in tough times i.e., especially in times of hyperinflation is why most advisors encourage

Environmental Impacts Of Large Dams Environmental Sciences Essay

Environmental Impacts Of Large Dams Environmental Sciences Essay About 48000 large dams have been built as a response to meet energy or water need. Nearly half of the worlds rivers have at least one large dam. One-third of the countries in the world rely on hydropower for more than half their electricity supply, and large dams generate 19% of electricity overall. Half the worlds large dams were built exclusively or primarily for irrigation, and some 30-40% of the 271 million hectares irrigated worldwide rely on dams. There are dams on nearly half of the rivers of the world (Table 2.6). Six percent of the energy consumed in the world is produced from hydraulic power. Additionally, hydraulic power is in the second rank within the renewable energy sources and every year it increases 4 percent in the world. Dams whose height is more than 15 meters are referred to as big dams. Clearly, dams can play an important role in meeting peoples needs (Table 2.7). Table 2.6. Distribution of Dams on the World Continent Number of Dams Percentage of the total Africa 1269 2.7 Asia 31340 65.8 America 8989 18.8 Europe 5480 11.5 Australia 577 1.2 Total 47655 100 Source: World Commission on Dams, Dams and Development, 2000. There are always two opinions about dams the supporters talk about the economic benefits of irrigation, electricity generation, flood control and water supply, the opponents highlight the adverse impacts of displacement and impoverishment of people, destruction of ecosystems and fishery resources, and possibility of disaster if the dam breaks. Environmental Impacts of Large Dams Land and water are ecologically linked in a natural system called a watershed. From the smallest droplet to the mightiest river, water works to shape the land, taking with it sediment and dissolved materials that drain to watercourses and, in most cases, eventually to the sea. The river is a product of the land it flows through the type of rock and soil, the shape of the land, and the amount of vegetation are some of the factors that determine the rivers shape, size and flow. When a large dam is constructed, these ties between the land and the river are broken and the consequences are felt throughout the watershed, as well as by the web of life it supports. Some 40,000 large dams, most of which were built in the past 50 years, now obstruct the worlds rivers. More than 400,000 square kilometers an area larger than Zimbabwe, have been inundated by reservoirs worldwide. The worlds largest impoundment, the 8,500 sq km Volta Reservoir behind Ghanas Akasombo Dam, flooded 4% of that nations land area. An internal survey of hydroelectric dam projects by World Bank has shown that 58% of the dams were planned and built without any consideration of downstream impacts. Table 2.7. Countries having the Biggest Dams according to Size and Function Rank Countries having Biggest Dams Ranking with respect to Dams Function Electrical Energy Water For Drinking and Daily Use Irrigation Flood Protection 1. China China USA China China 2. USA USA United Kingdom India USA 3. India Canada Spain USA Japan 4. Spain Japan Japan Korea Brazil 5. Japan Spain Australia Spain Germany 6. Canada Italy Thailand Turkey Romania 7. Korea France South Africa Japan Mexico 8. Turkey Norwegen Brazil Mexico Korea 9. Brazil Brazil France S. Africa Canada 10 France Swedish Germany Albania Turkey Source: World Commission on Dams, Dams and Development, 2000. The following are a few serious environmental impacts of dams: . (i) Effects on River Systems Reducing the flow of water from a river changes the landscape it flows through, which in turn can affect the ecosystems flora and fauna. A dam holds back sediments, especially the heavy gravel and cobbles. The river, deprived of its sediment load, seeks to recapture it by eroding the downstream channel and banks, undermining bridges and other riverbank structures. Riverbeds are typically eroded by several meters within a decade of first closing a dam; the damage can extend for tens or hundreds of kilometers below a dam. Riverbed deepening lowers the groundwater table along a river, threatening vegetation and local wells in the floodplain and requiring crop irrigation in places where there was previously no need. The depletion of riverbed gravels reduces habitat for many fish that spawn in the river bottom, and for invertebrates such as insects, molluscs and crustaceans. Changes in the physical habitat and hydrology of rivers are implicated in 93% of freshwater fauna declines in North America. Before construction of the Aswan Dam in Egypt, the Nile River carried about 124 million tons of sediment to the sea each year, depositing nearly 10 million tons on the floodplain and delta. Today, 98% of that sediment remains behind the dam. The result has been a drop in soil productivity. The Aswan Dam has also led to serious coastal erosion, another problem stemming from the loss of sediments in a dammed river. Another example of this problem is along the mouth of the Volta River in Ghana. Akosombo Dam has cut off the supply of sediment to the Volta Estuary, affecting also neighboring Togo and Benin, whose coasts are now being eaten away at a rate of 10-15 meters per year. (ii) Hydrological Effects Dams change the pattern of the flow of a river, both reducing its overall volume and changing its seasonal variations. The nature of the impacts depends on the design, purpose and operation of the dam. All parts of a rivers ecology can be impacted by changes to its flow. A rivers estuary, where fresh water meets the sea, is a particularly rich ecosystem. Some 80% of the worlds fish catch comes from these habitats, which depend on the volume and timing of nutrients and fresh water. The alteration of the flows reaching estuaries because of dams and diversions is a major cause of the precipitous decline of sea fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico, the Black and Caspian Seas, Californias San Francisco Bay, the Eastern Mediterranean and others. (iii) Changes to Flooding The storage of water in dams delays and reduces floods downstream. River and floodplain ecosystems are closely adapted to a rivers flooding cycle. The native plants and animals depend on its variations for reproduction, hatching, migration and other important lifecycle stages. Annual floods deposit nutrients on the land, flush out backwater channels, and replenish wetlands. It is generally recognized by biologists that dams are the most destructive of the many abuses causing the rapid disappearance of riverine species. About 20% of the worlds recognized 8,000 freshwater species are threatened with extinction. The first effect of a dam is to alter the pattern of disturbances that the plants and animals of a river have evolved for. Many aquatic animals coordinate their reproductive cycles with annual flood seasons. Every flood is valuable in that it takes nutrients from the land and deposits them in the river, providing food for the streams residents. Floods also provide shallow backwater areas on vegetated and shaded riversides; the young of many animals depend on these backwaters to protect them from large predators.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As an example, a fish on a certain river may only reproduce during April of every year so that its offspring will have abundant food and places to hide. If the flood never comes because a dam holds the river back (because people want the water for themselves), the offspring may be produced during a time when they cannot possibly survive. If the fish can wait until the next flood, which may be in July, its young will be born during the wrong time of year, and will have to contend with the absence of their normal food supply and temperatures for which they are not prepared. Vegetation, too, depends upon these regular cycles of flood. Quite often, people will decide that they can spare no water at all and no flooding will occur. Or they may have built the dams specifically to stop flooding, so they can build houses in the floodplains. When this happens, riparian vegetation, the vegetation bordering the river, changes forever. (iv) Removing Sediment   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another reason that riverbeds become scoured and armored is that dams remove all the sediment from the river. It is natural that the river, which is accustomed to carrying sediment and now has none, will pick up the sediment from the streambed below the dam. It is almost as though the river has been starved of its sediment. As in everything else in nature, balance will be achieved one way or the other, often at the expense of one or more species.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The sediment in a dammed river reaches the slow-moving reservoir above the dam and drops out, settling behind the dam. Each dam is engineered to withstand the force of a particular amount of water (this may be very very large). The dam is not engineered to withstand the additional force of tons of wet sediment pressing on the backside. The muddier the river, the faster this heap of sediment will build up. When it builds up very high, either the dam bursts, killing people and destroying settlements downstream, or the reservoirs water pours over the top of the dam. The river downstream of the dam will be like a dead river. It will not have a living river ecosystem filled with fish and birds. The water will be starved of nutrients and provide little or no habitat for animals. In addition, animals that once used the muddiness of the rivers water to conceal them from predators are now overly vulnerable to predation, and may quickly go extinct. A river with dams eventually becomes little more than a dead channel of water. (v) Starving the River   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dams hold back not only sediment, but also debris. The life of organisms (including fish) downstream depends on the constant feeding of the river with debris. This debris includes leaves, twigs, branches, and whole trees, as well as the organic remains of dead animals. Debris not only provides food, it provides hiding places for all sizes of animals and surfaces for phytoplankton and microorganisms to grow. Without flooding and without a healthy riparian zone, this debris will be scarce. Adding to the problem, although debris might come from the river above the dam, it is instead trapped in the reservoir, and never appears downstream. The bottom level of the food web is removed. All in all, the loss of sediment and debris means the loss of both nutrients and habitat for most animals. (vi) Changing Temperature Temperature is another problem. Rivers tend to be fairly homogenous in temperature. Reservoirs, on the other hand, are layered. They are warm at the top and cold at the bottom. If water is released downstream, it is usually released from the bottom of the dam, which means the water in the river is now colder than it should be. Many macro-invertebrates depend on a regular cycle of temperatures throughout the year. When this is changed, their survival is threatened. (vii) Erosion The typical practices in a hydroelectric station are to release large amounts of water in powerful surges during the day in order to provide electricity when demand and prices are highest, and to cut down flow during the night in order to replenish reservoirs for the next day. The cyclic floods caused by this popular practice contribute to the extinction of many species like the salmon by flushing away their spawning gravels during the day and leaving them high and dry at night. Riverbeds become scoured, stripped of their organic materials, sediment, vegetation, and macro-invertebrates. (viii) Stopping Fish Migration   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Fish passage is a concern with dams. Many fishes must move upstream and downstream to complete their lifecycles. Dams are often built without fish ladders. When fish ladders are provided, they seldom work as needed. If enough adult fishes do manage to climb above a dam, there remains the issue of their young: how will they get back downstream? Predators kill many while they wander, lost, in the reservoir above the dam. Many are killed in their fall downward through the dam to the river below. They arent killed by the fall itself, but by the high levels of nitrogen gas at the base of the dam.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many fishes that cannot climb dam ladders or leap over low dams. Some of these fishes swim upstream every year to breed, and then let the water carry them back downstream. The eggs of pelagic spawners float downstream, too, which is why the adults must swim far upriver to breed. Otherwise, the baby fish would soon end up in sea. (ix) Social Impacts of Dams: Conflict with people The most important social impact of a dam is displacement of people. The forced removal of people from their homes and the land by which they make a living has been the tragic consequence of dams. Although the people are offered resettlement, the situation leads to disintegration of self-identity and place-connection for both individuals and communities. The social connections are lost and the people find it hard to recover a sense of belonging to both community and the physical environment that supports their existence. The major issues related to displacement are summarized below: Effect Biogeophysical impacts Social impacts Primary (direct) Flooding of reservoir Water diversion and hydrological changes Soil compaction and paving Mountain top removal and stream filling Reduction/depletion of minerals and species Deforestation Creation of barriers to species migration Eviction and resettlement Labour camps Loss of resource due to construction and/or flooding Secondary (indirect) Landslide, flood, and earthquakes from dams Water quality decline Soil salinisation Loss (or gain) of fish and wildlife populations Ecosystem changes leading to pest problems or disease Aquifer disruption causing problems downstream Loss of fish species leads to loss of migratory bird species Loss of access to resources and property Unemployment with project completion Psychosocial stresses Creation of new identities Urbanization as labour camps become permanent Unsustainable agriculture in resettlement area leading to soil erosion Ethnic conflict due to resettlement The inundation of the river valley has significant adverse social impacts by blocking access to natural and social resources of the river valley. This puts pressure on the ecosystem, as fewer resources are available to serve the needs of the population located within the region. Increased competition for commonly held resources, such as wild fruits and vegetables, timber, fodder and firewood, disrupts the subsistence routines of riverine populations. This has the impact of forcing people to forge in new areas that may be further from their homes in and/or in locations that are used by other groups for either similar or conflicting purposes. The dams also seriously affect human health through the spread of disease. For instance, schistosomiasis and malaria proliferate in areas around the still water of dam reservoirs. Beyond creating habitat for disease vectors, dams have been linked with the spread of non-communicable diseases like mercury poisoning. The increase in disease is also attributable to the influx of migratory workers during the time of dam construction. The overall social impact of a surge in disease in communities is to increase social malaise and to circumscribe livelihood opportunities. The process of displacement has affected most the weaker sections of the people in India. The scheduled tribes and castes and backward caste people constitute a large chunk of the displaced people. Women and children suffer the maximum in any displacement. The conditions of people displaced by the various dams in the Narmada have attracted the attention of the Supreme Court of India, and it is observed that the measures at resettlement and in making provision for civic amenities in the new settlements are far below expectation. The total number of people displaced by dams is estimated to be 40 80 million throughout the world a substantial number of these people are Indians (the estimates vary, but the figure is likely to be around 4.4 million people). The people get compensation, but the process is often long-drawn, and sometimes, the actual sufferers are not getting true value for the losses incurred. These are inadequate when compared to the permanent loss of livelihood, and the social and mental cost of displacement. Large Dams in India At independence, in 1947, there were not more than 300 large dams in India. By 2000, the number grew to over 4000, more than half of them built between 1971 and 1989. India ranks third in the world in dam building after US and China. While some of these dams were built primarily for flood control, water supply, and hydroelectric power generation, the primary purpose of most Indian dams (96 percent) remains irrigation. In fact, large dam construction has been the main form of investment in irrigation undertaken by the Indian government. However, much controversy has evoked since 1980s with the Sardar Sarovar Project on the Narmada when the people started asking questions on the social, environmental, and economic costs of dams and their benefits. Most irrigation dams in India are embankment dams. They consist of a wall built across a river to impound water forming a reservoir upstream and a system of spillways and gates to bypass the wall to maintain normal flow and the impounded water flows to canals feeding agriculture fields downstream. People living in the upstream catchment area, lose property and livelihood and gain very little, while people living in the command area (downstream) gain the most from irrigation. Between 1951 and 2000, Indias production of food grains increased fourfold, from 51 million tonnes to about 200 million tonnes resulting in considerable foreign exchange savings in food grains import, and making India a food grain surplus or at least self-sufficient country. About two thirds of this increase has been attributed to rise in irrigated areas, 35 % of which are irrigated by dams. Case Studies The world is building more dams every year. New dams promise more electricity and at the same time, they are devastating to others. A few case studies are briefly described below: The Enawene Nawe, Brazil The Enawene Nawe, a small Amazonian tribe (over 420) who live by fishing in Mato Grosso state, Brazil, is a relatively isolated people. They grow manioc and corn in gardens and gather forest products, like honey but fishing is their main livelihood and fish are a vital part of their diet, as they are one of the few tribes who eat no red meat. During the fishing season, the men build large dams across rivers and spend several months camped in the forest, catching and smoking the fish which is then transported by canoe to their village. For decades, the Enawene Nawe has faced invasion of their lands by rubber tappers, diamond prospectors, cattle ranchers and more recently soya planters Maggi, the largest soya company in Brazil, illegally built a road on their land in 1997 (this was subsequently closed by a federal prosecutor). Although their territory was officially recognized and ratified by the government in 1996, a key area known as the Rio Preto was left out. This area is tremendously important to the Enawene Nawe both economically and spiritually this is where they build their fishing camps and dams, and where many important spirits live. Now, up to 11 dams are planned along the Juruena River, which flows through the Indians territory. The dams will be funded by a consortium of businesses, many of whom are involved in the soya industry. The Enawene Nawe is opposing the dams, and has launched an appeal for support to halt the construction. The Penan, Malaysia In 2008, a leaked map exposed the huge dam plans of the national electricity company in Sarawak, Malaysia. The local Penan people, who are familiar with destructive interference from outsiders, now face a new challenge to their land and livelihoods. Blueprints were accidentally posted on the internet for dams that will submerge homes and villages. To make matters worse, these dams are projected to produce far more electricity than Sarawak uses. The Borneo forests The island of Borneo, a fragile treasure house of rainforests, rare animals and plants, is under threat from plans for Chinese engineers to build 12 dams that will cut through virgin land and displace thousands of native Dayak people. The government of the Malaysian state of Sarawak says the dams are the first stage of a corridor of renewable energy that will create 1.5 million jobs through industries powered by safe, clean hydro-electricity. Campaigners are furious but appear powerless in the face of a project they fear will compound the devastation wrecked on Borneos peoples and land by previous dam projects and the felling of its forests. They point to the ruin caused by the levelling of millions of acres of trees for oil palm plantations to meet the worlds demand for biofuels. The dams would slice across a vast sweep of Sarawak, a place where wisps of cloud cling to remote, tree-clad peaks, huge butterflies flit through the foliage and orang-utans, sun bears and leopards roam. The Bakun dam, a separate project due to be completed by 2011, has already displaced an estimated 10,000 indigenous people, leading to bitter legal battles and a chorus of dismay from economists about cost overruns. For all that, it may be too late to save the natural bounty of Borneo itself. Orphaned orang-utans, piteously holding the outstretched hands of their human saviours, are the most conspicuous symbols of its fragility. Divided between Malaysia and Indonesia, with Brunei occupying a tiny enclave in the north, Borneos riches have ensured its plunder. One reason is the voracious world demand for timber. The other is the biofuels made from palm oil. Almost half of Borneos rainforests have been cut down. Two million acres have vanished every year as trees are felled, the wood sold and the land turned over to oil palms. Enormous fires cast a perpetual pall of toxic haze, making Indonesia the worlds third largest greenhouse gas polluter after China and the United States. Green gold, or palm oil, poses an even more insidious threat because it promises prosperity and development to the numerous poor of Borneo along with immense rewards for the elites. The vegetable oil comes from crushed palm husks. Long used for cooking, cosmetics and soap, it has now become a principal source of biodiesel fuel. Malaysia and Indonesia produce about 85% of the worlds supply of palm oil most of it from Borneo. The price of this apparently environment-friendly fuel is high as the damages far outweigh the benefits. All over Sarawak, tribal people have lost their ancestral lands to similar gambits. The situation in India Bhakra-Nangal Dam This dam is situated in the town Bhakra in Punjab and is Asias biggest dam. The dam is built on the Sutlej River. It is 225.55 m high above sea level. The dam is 518.25 m long and 304.84 m broad. Its huge reservoir known as the Gobindh Sarovar, stores up to 9621 million cu m of water, enough to drain the whole of Chandigarh, parts of Haryana, Punjab and Delhi. It has 4 floodgates, which are fully functional during the period of floods, and also has 2 power- stations situated on either side of the dam. Each of the power plants comprise of 5 generators, and a power station. The total electricity produced in both the generators is 1325 MW. The Narmada River Dams The Narmada River originates from the Maikal ranges at Amarkantak, 1057 m above the sea-level, now in Shahdol district of Madhya Pradesh. The river flows for 1312 km through the three states of Madhya Pradesh (MP), Maharashtra and Gujarat before falling into the Arabian Sea. The valley has been the seat of an uninterrupted flow of human civilization from pre-historic times. The river has supported a variety of people and diverse socio-cultural practices ranging from the relatively autonomous adivasi (tribal) settlements in the forests to non-tribal rural population. The Narmada basin extends over an area of 98,796  km2 and lies between 720 32 E to 810 45 E and 21o 20 N to 23o 45 N. The basin covers large areas in the states of Madhya Pradesh (86%), Gujarat (14%) and a comparatively smaller area (2%) in Maharashtra. In the river course of 1,312  km, there are 41 tributaries, out of which 22 are from the Satpuda range and the rest on the right bank are from the Vindhya range. The valley experiences extremes of hydrometeorological and climatic conditions with the upper catchment having an annual precipitation in the range of 1000  mm to 1850  mm and with half or even less than half in its lower regions (650  mm-750  mm); the diversity of vegetation from lush green in the upper region to dry deciduous teak forest vegetation in the lower region is testimony to this feature. The Narmada basin is drought affected and a large part of North Gujarat, Saurashtra and Kutch constitute semi-arid or arid regions on account of extreme unreliability of rainfall, rendering them chronically drought prone and subject to serious drinking water problems. Teak and Indias best hardwood forests are found in the Narmada River basin and they are much older than the ones in the Himalayas. The lower Narmada River Valley and the surrounding uplands, covering an area of 169,900  km2 consists of dry deciduous forests. The natural vegetation of the region is a three-tiered forest. Tectona grandis is the dominant canopy tree, in association with Diospyros melanoxylon, Dhaora (Anogeissus latifolia), and Boswellia serrata. Riperian areas along the regions rivers and streams, which receive year-round water, are home to moist evergreen forests. The ecoregion is home to 76 species of mammals and to 276 bird species none of which are endemic. According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), about 30% of the ecoregion is covered in relatively intact vegetation. The ecoregion includes some large blocks of habitat in the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. About 5% of the ecoregion lies within protected areas, including Bandhavgarh, Panna, and Sanjay National Parks. The valley has some of the important national parks and wild life sanctuaries. Kanha national park located in the upper reaches of Narmada, about 18  km from Mandla, boasts of several wild animals including the Tiger. Two tributaries of Narmada, namley, Hallon and Banjar, flow through this park. It is one of the best National Parks of Asia, which has been described vividly by Rudyard Kipling in his famous creation Jungle Book. Satpura National Park, set up in 1981, is located in Hoshangabad district of Madhya Pradesh and covers an area of 524  km2. Along with the adjoining Bori and Panchmarhi Sanctuaries, it constitutes an area of 1,427  km2 of unique Central Indian Highland ecosystem. Satpura National Park, being part of a unique ecosystem, is very rich in biodiversity. The fauna comprises tiger, leopard, sambar, chital, bhedki, nilgai, four-horned antelope, chinkora, bison (gour), wild boar, wild dog, bear, black bear, black buck, fox, porcupine, flying, mouse deer, Indian jo int squirrel etc. There are a variety of birds. Hornbills and peafowl are the common birds. The flora of the national park consists of mainly sal, teak, tendu, aonla, mohua, bel, bambo, and a variety of grasses and medicinal plants. Madla plant Fossil National park, Dindori National fossils park Ghughuya is situated in Din dori district of Madhya Pradesh in India. This national park has plants in fossil form that existed in India anywhere between 40 million and 150 million years ago spread over seven villages of Mandla District (Ghuguwa, Umaria, Deorakhurd, Barbaspur, Chanti-hills, Chargaon and Deori Kohani). The Mandla Plant Fossils National Park is an area that spreads over 274,100  m2. The Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve covers part of three civil districts viz., Hoshangabad, Betul and Chhindwara of Madhya Pradesh. The total area is 4926.28  km2. It envelops three wildlife conservation units viz., Bori Sanctuary (518.00 km ²), Satpura National Park (524.37  km2), and Pachmarhi Sanctuary (461.37  km2). Satpura National Park comprises the core zone and the remaining area of 4,501.91  km2, surrounding the core zone serves as buffer zone. The area comprises 511 villages. The area exhibits variety of geological rock and soil formations. There is a wide spectrum of floral and faunal features that occupy the Satpura conservation area. It is one of the oldest forest reserves, which has an established tradition of scientific management of forests. It constitutes a large contiguous forest block that harbours a community of plant and animal species typical of the central highland region. Of the 30 big dams proposed along the Narmada, Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP) and Narmada Sagar Project (NSP) are the mega dams. The Maheshwar and Omkareshwar dams along with SSP and NSP, are to form a complex which would ultimately cater to the needs of SSP. The struggle of the people of the Narmada valley against large dams began when the people to be displaced by SSP began organizing in 1985-86. Since then the struggle has spread to encompass other major dams in various stages of planning and construction chiefly Maheshwar, Narmada Sagar, Maan, Goi and Jobat. Tawa and Bargi Dams were completed in 1973 and 1989 respectively. Sardar Sarovar project The Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP) faced stiff opposition from the people right from the planning stage. The Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save the Narmada movement) has been at the forfront of this opposition and at one time the NBA was successful in stopping World Bank funding for the project. A number of cases were filed against the project. However, the Supreme Court of India in 2000 issued a final ruling allowing construction to proceed. It is estimated that nearly 200,000 people would be displaced to construct the reservoir and a large number of people will lose land or livelihood due to project activities. A majority of the displaced people are tribal people. Medha Patkar (born 1 December 1954 in Bombay) is the founder of the Narmada Bachao Andolan and has vowed to work for the displaced people. She is one of Indias most important environmental activists. Her uncompromising insistence on the right to life and livelihood has brought to the fore the basic questions of natural resources, human rights, environment, and developm